548) Early Mussar: Displacement of the Divine and demonic threat management

Yiddish translation of Kav haYashar

Introduction

In a previous article, we delved into the possibility of Sabbatian connections to, if not outright authorship of an early Mussar (ethical) text, the  Kav haYashar [see: Kotzk Blog: 303) MYSTICAL YIDDISH TEXTS AS A CONDUIT FOR CHASSIDIC THOUGHT:]. This article—drawing extensively on the research by Professor Isaac Hershkowitz—explores a different dimension of the Kav haYashar with its striking emphasis on angelology and demonology. These themes are not incidental but central to the work, to the point where they appear to eclipse God in the text’s pursuit and development of religious-ethical development (Mussar). In early Mussar, such as Kav haYashar, ethical conduct is shaped more by obedience to a cosmic system of angels and demons. In this scheme, God is to a notable degree marginalised—eclipsed, displaced, if not altogether absent—from the process of moral perfection. Likewise, the individual’s own self-effort is detached from the work of ethical refinement. Instead, early Mussar emphasises the conceptual struggle of enlisting good angels and combating demonic forces as the primary path toward moral righteousness. 

Difference between ‘early Mussar’ and ‘contemporary Mussar’

‘Early Mussar’ refers to the period between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. It deals with ethical transformation through an elaborate system of piety, fear and mystical cosmic forces, both positive and destructive. ‘Contemporary Mussar,’ on the other hand, refers to the system initiated by R. Yisrael Salanter (d. 1883) in Lithuania as a pragmatic program of character formation and ethical discipline (middot), particularly within the yeshiva world. It emphasises self‑examination, structured practices, responsibility, personal work and teacher-student mentorship. This article focuses—not on contemporary Mussar beginning from the nineteenth century—but on the early Mussar texts between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. 

Background

We shall discuss three early Mussar (Mystical-Theological-Ethical) works, Reishit Chochma, Shevet Mussar, with particular focus on Kav haYashar, a most popular Halachic-mystical-ethical work, published in 1705, and authored by R. Tsvi Hirsh Koidanover [Hirsh is a play on haYashar]. The work is very much fire and brimstone. Its goal is to awaken the fear of transgression, to stress the sinfulness of the generation and to call for collective repentance. R. Koidanover was a survivor of the Chmielnicki massacres (1648-49) and believed the Jews had been punished for not observing the Torah appropriately. In Kav haYashar, simple Jews are criticised for their improper behaviour, as are the wealthy and powerful leadership of the communities. They are all responsible for the delay in the process of redemption. It is a fiery ethical work exhorting people to mend their ways and to fulfil God's commandments. It contains wondrous tales emphasising the punishment of the wicked and the reward of the righteous. There iare a graphic references to people interacting with demons who appear to be human, and, in one case, who have fathered a child from a human wife he abducted to their demonic realm. A human Mohel is then called in to perform the circumcision of a boy born from such a union. Kav haYashar presents this strange account, which can only be described as a horror story, as a means to impart an ethical message (see Appendix below). The work—written around 1680—was not insignificant because a bilingual edition in both Hebrew and Yiddish came out in 1709. Kav haYashar proved to be so popular that it was reprinted more than fifty times up to the twentieth century, and there are about eighty editions to date. It has been described as the most popular ethical work in the last three hundred years (Davis 2007: xxvii). 

Big Data analysis of three Mussar works

Hershkowitz conducted a fascinating and compelling study of the abovementioned three important Mussar works—composed between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries—using Big Data tools. While mysticism is not usually associated with contemporary forms of Mussar, these early texts exhibit much cosmic imagery by drawing heavily on angelology and demonology as part of their ethical project. These three works and the reverence and authority they commanded: 

“aimed at enhancing and shaping human behavior in accordance with Torah guidance and within the framework of Kabbalistic literature” (Hershkowitz 2023:31). 

The three texts were also selected specifically because they form part of a typical genre of Mussar texts from the Early Modern Period.[1] The three Mussar works subjected to Big Data analysis are as follows: 

1) Reshit Chochma (Beginning of Wisdom) by R. Eliyahu de Vidas, a disciple of the Kabbalist Moses Cordovero, was produced in the mid-sixteenth century in Safed [The work contains 427 038 words]. 

2) Kav HaYashar (The Just Measure) by R. Tzvi Hirsh Koidanover was published in 1705, in Germany/Poland. Kav haYashar is regarded as a popular commentator on the Lurianic teachings and the Zohar, emphasising its moral components (Idel 1997:123-4) [The work contains 103 110 words]. 

3)  Shevet Mussar (Rod of Discipline) by R. Eliyahu ben Moshe ha‑Levi was first published in 1712 in Constantinople [The work contains 87 005 words]. 

All three works stand out in their vivid conceptualisations of the role of angels and demons in the project of moral perfection, although with differing intensity. Kav haYashar develops this cosmology to the fullest extent, creating what can only be described as a bureaucratic angelic and demonic theurgy. The result is that ethical perfection is not presented as the product of human effort but as a project that requires managing, placating, or outwitting external spiritual forces. In these early Mussar texts, ethical perfection was understood not as the result of perseverance, education, or personal effort, but as something accomplished through the agency of angelic beings and the management of demonic threats. 

Hershkowitz describes his research methodology: 

“By utilizing…technological tools, I have discovered a previously unexplored dimension within these teachings, specifically regarding the role of angels as significant figures in the ethical discourse” (Hershkowitz 2023:29). 

Hershkowitz’s exceptional findings regarding this engagement in angelology and demonology within an ethical framework radically change the way we understand the usage of words like “ethics” in this context. It is precisely this cosmology (the way a system envisions and defines the structure and order of the universe and celestial realm) and ontology (the way a system envisions and defines the nature of spiritual beings and realities) that make this study so striking from a theological point and moral of view. This is because it raises the question of how exactly demons and angels are conceptualised as determining ethical outcomes for humans, who alone are supposed to be responsible for their personal ethical and moral choices. In fact, this early Mussar can be seen as removing accountability and culpability from the ethical discourse, promoting the notion of ‘the devil made me do this.’ 

Scarcity of scholarship on the conceptualised role of angels

In general scholarship, the role attributed to angels in the development of human civilisation has been largely overlooked (Marshall and Walsham 2006:1-3). In the Jewish world, with the advent of the printing press in the fifteenth century and its associated expense, the ubiquitous earlier references to angels were often intentionally left out or limited to prioritise the more technical demands of rabbinic writing. This decline, however, had already begun several centuries before the age of print, as references to angels naturally diminished over time (Idel 2009:228). This was probably due to the progression from earlier Heichalot and Merkavah mysticism that concentrated on angelology, to Zoharic Kabbalah that substituted Sefirot (spheres) for angels [see: Kotzk Blog: 530) Early textual layering in Zohar and Bahir as clues to their dating]. 

Findings

Hershkowitz’s study sought to measure the frequency of references to all things related to angelic and demonic beings. He first had to relativise the data from the three major Mussar books under examination, as their differing lengths, vocabularies, and modes of composition rendered a straightforward count of cosmological terms methodologically unsuitable. This process was far from simple because, at the time these three Mussar works were produced, Hebrew functioned primarily as a rabbinic language rather than a spoken one, and there was neither conformity nor a consistent standard of spelling. Additionally, this corpus frequently quotes from earlier Aramaic rabbinic literature. This complicates matters further because Babylonian Aramaic (Talmud Bavli) differs from Palestinian Aramaic (Talmud Yerushalmi), and the Aramaic of the Zohar differs from both. 

Nevertheless, Hershkowitz was able to identify a clear distinction between two angelic categories: 1) the positive, pure ministering angels, and 2) the negative, impure angels of destruction. Surprisingly, what became immediately apparent in this Mussar literature was a prevailing view that human agency in ethics and morals was subordinated to the cosmic powers of angels and demons, which were seen as determinants of individual moral standards. 

To summarise the technical findings, it emerges that Kav haYashar shows the highest frequency of cosmological terminology, averaging one such term every 115 words. In Shevet Mussar, the density of cosmological terminology is lower, at one per 300 words. Reishit Chochma presents one cosmological term in every 400 words (which is still significant). 

Another intriguing observation is the higher ratio of angels of destruction and negativity when compared to the ratio of positive ministering angels. Kav haYashar, particularly, gives disproportionate weight to angels of destruction. This is three to four times higher than in Reishit Chochma and Shevet Mussar. In Kav HaYashar, angels of destruction appear once every 250 words, compared to once every 1100 (Shevet Mussar) and 1 300 (Reishit Chochma) words in the other two texts (which, again, is still significant). 

This imbalance in Kav haYashar reflects R. Tzvi Hirsh Koidanover’s unique moral vision. He emphasises the constant presence of destructive forces like Satan, Lilit, Samael, and others. The effect is a moral system that is harsher and more fear-driven, where ethical progress is measured less by closeness to God and more by successfully navigating threats from these destructive angelic bureaucrats and demonic figures. Essentially, in early Mussar, we observe a move from Divine proximity to demonic threat management. 

Ministering angels and destructive angels

The early Mussar genre envisions a cosmos animated by potent angelic and demonic forces, ever-present in the surrounding environment—poised either to assist or to obstruct the individual’s spiritual journey. These forces ultimately determine the individual’s moral standing. Thus, the pursuit of moral perfection is conceived not as inward self-reflection, but as a deliberate engagement with, and manipulation of, the unseen cosmological order to secure the desired outcome. 

The positive and assisting ministering angels include malakh (angel), seraph, ophan, cherub, sharet (ministering [angel]), Merkava (chariot), pameliya (entourage), memune (appointed one), machane (camp [of angels]), sar ha…. (minister of…), irin ([holy] watchers). 

The angels of destruction include chabala (destruction), chitzon (external energy), mekatreig (denouncer), ruach ([evil] spirit), sheid (demon), maschit (destroyer), kateigor (prosecutor). 

Emphasis on hostile entities

Kav haYashar places a pronounced emphasis on the hostile dimensions of the unseen world, highlighting the destructive threats embodied by forces such as the mashchit, chitzonim, and outright demonological figures like Satan and Lilit. These entities are depicted as preying humans precisely at the moment they strive for moral perfection. This demonology often focuses on the figure of Lilit: 

“Lilith embodies primordial fears, the sins of youth and childhood that haunt the individual, entangle them in their footsteps, and hinder their progress. Even after one escapes her clutches, so to speak, she is always lying in wait, ready to ensnare the individual at any moment of carelessness and inattentiveness to their weaknesses and desires” (Hershkowitz 2023:46). 

This imagery serves to create a gloomy and threatening atmosphere as a backdrop to the spiritual ethos among European Jewry during the Early Modern period (Hershkowitz, citing Feiner 2008:54). 

“[Kav haYashar] establishes a preliminary or alternative mechanism to the encounter between man and God, requiring man to improve his deeds, words, and intentions vis-à-vis a factor that is not God. The measure of man’s progress is not his connection and link to God but rather his ability to overcome the obstacles of lower officials. This is a mechanism that…removes elements of mercy, pity, and compassion from the discourse” (Hershkowitz 2023:40). 

Some examples from Kav haYashar

Kav haYashar warns against customary practices and social contracts like “vows, handshaking, and unnecessary rituals related to oaths.“ This injunction against symbolic cultural guarantees of honesty and mutual obligation is followed by a severe warning: 

“Those who fail to exercise caution [in vows, handshaking and taking oaths] may inadvertently provide a space, God forbid, for the wicked Lilith to establish a presence and share in their household. Consequently, their young children may perish, and they themselves and their families will face retribution. Subsequently, curses and punishments from all celestial realms are proclaimed against them, and they are continually reminded of their misfortune” (Kav haYashar, Chapter 56). 

Echoes of early Mussar literature persist in the collective memory of contemporary Jewish speech. Everyday commitments are routinely hedged with linguistic safeguards: “I’ll see you tomorrow” becomes “I’ll see you tomorrow im yirtzeh Hashem” (If God wills it), or “bli neder” (without taking an oath)—although some of these are often reinterpreted through a Halachic lens, such as the aversion to take unnecessary oaths. After saying something negative, we hasten to add “Chas veShalom” (Heaven forefend). 

In another case, Kav haYashar explains the reason why the Fast of Ester precedes Purim, when drinking alcohol is sometimes excessive. This teaching, it claims, was revealed by the Magid or angelic being that is said to have visited R. Yosef Karo [see: Kotzk Blog: 448) R. Yosef Karo’s unusual mystical entries in his diary]: 

“[I]t is important to be cautious, lest excessive indulgence in eating, drinking, and merriment lead Israel to sin. Thus, the Holy One, blessed be He, preempted with the fast, as fasting is a means to protect against sin. It weakens the power of Satan and Lilith to accuse and lead them to sin due to excessive indulgence in food and drink” (Kav haYashar, Chapter 97). 

Accordingly, excessive drinking is not always construed as the product of individual weakness. Here, it is depicted as the influence of demonic forces that lead one astray, thereby displacing or even removing the sense of personal responsibility. 

R. Koidanover’s creative expansion beyond his teacher’s Yesod Yosef

Many of the teachings in R. Koidanover’s Kav haYashar are reproduced almost verbatim from Yesod Yosef, the work of his teacher R. Yosef of Dovna. Yet R. Koidanover substantially reworks these inherited materials, effectively inventing new accounts of angelic and demonic activity. In this way, Kav haYashar does not simply transmit earlier Mussar traditions but develops a distinctive cosmology in which ethical failings are interpreted as the consequence of hostile spiritual forces. 

“Therefore, it is reasonable to presume that Koidanover made a conscious decision to endow angels with greater importance and power than they had previously been accorded” (Hershkowitz 2023:44). 

The innovation introduced by R. Tzvi Hirsh Koidanover (d. 1712) imparted an almost technical dimension to religious life. It required satisfying appointed angels (memunim), and placating or even deceiving destructive demons. This management of negative spiritual agents was later developed further by R. Nachman of Breslov (1772–1810), whose writings suggest strategies for countering and outwitting forces of impurity (kelipot). This emphasis on destructive cosmology, however, comes at a theological price: 

“By distancing God from the moral act and placing the main moral drama between humans and angels, a different image emerges regarding the purpose of the moral journey…The strength of the individual is [not from within, but] primarily measured by their ability to cope with forces that are balanced with them…The moral journey thus becomes harsher and more stringent, devoid of many of the junctions at which man receives grace and compassion” (Hershkowitz 2023:45-6). 

Angels in heaven or on earth?

Compared to the earlier pre-Zoharic mystical writings of Heichalot and Merkavah literature, angels and demons were usually encountered in heavenly realms where worthy humans were perceived to ascend in spiritual states (there were, of course, recorded exceptions to this rule). However, this changed dramatically in Kav haYashar, where the rule was inverted, and now: 

“[T]hese angels and demons are found in the earthly surroundings of humans, present in every corner of their personal spaces, bedrooms, child-rearing, and basic social interactions” (Hershkowitz 2023:47). 

Theologically, by emphasising a detachment of the Divine in human matters, and ascribing great agency to the almost mechanical cosmological forces of good and evil, God was assigned a less central role. The early Mussar works largely changed the way rabbis had previously understood the pragmatic, tried and tested paths of moral development. Mussar now became a “means of instilling fear and intimidation,”  and this negative methodology became the “common tools in ethical literature of that era” (Hershkowitz 2023:46). 

Conclusion

Hershkowitz’s findings—which have not been noted to this extent before—did not result from traditional close or book readings of the texts, but rather from the distant reading of Big Data analysis. Considering the volume of this corpus of Mussar literature on a scale beyond what a single reader can reasonably survey, his method reveals a sustained emphasis on angelology and demonology that would likely remain invisible to conventional philological approaches. The data reveal an unusual and excessive fixation on the primacy of external spiritual forces, rather than what we might have expected to be individual control of personal ethical behaviour. This seems to have been missed by earlier book readings alone. Big Data analysis reveals how these texts strip humans of agency and responsibility, portraying them as victims of cosmic energies that determine whether a person emerges moral or immoral. 

Considering these findings, R. Koidanover’s intensified focus on destructive spiritual energies and hostile demonic agents reframes ethics as mechanical mastery of ritual technique and metaphysical combat. The early Mussar model, therefore, marginalises the hard work of human self-discipline, pragmatic self‑reflection and empirically grounded corrective practices. Instead, it privileges technical ritual efficacy and demonic threat management as the primary means of moral repair. This, besides the profound theological problem it creates by effectively displacing the personal and unencumbered encounter with the Divine in the process of moral growth. 

By contrast, contemporary Mussar movements reject these earlier theurgical frameworks, prioritising personal accountability, responsibility, sustained inward practice, and even psychological insight rather than ritual engagement and combat with angelic and demonic forces.

 

Bibliography

Davis, A. (Editor), Kav haYashar: The Just Measure, Eastern Book Press, Monsey.

Feiner, S., 2008, ‘Megamot hashinui beyahadut Eiropa beme’a ha-18: Minormot ‘masoret umashber’ ledramot ‘haḥavaya hamodernit’, in Israel Bartal and Shmuel Feiner, Historiografiya bemivchan, 37–58.

Hershkowitz, I., 2023, ‘Angels and Demons in Early Modern Musar Literature: A Big Data Analysis’, Journal of Jewish Ethics, vol. 9, no. 1, 28-50.

Idel, M., 1997, ‘On Rabbi Zvi Hirsh Koidanover’s Sefer Qav Ha-Yashar’, in Jüdische Kultur in Frankfurt am Main: von den Anfangen bis zur Gegenwart, Edited by Karl E. Grözinger, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, 123–133.

Idel, M., 2009, ‘On Angels and Biblical Exegesis in 13th Century Ashkenaz’, in Scriptural Exegesis: The Shapes of Culture and the Religious Imagination: Essays in Honour of Michael Fishbane, Edited by Deborah A. Green and Laura S. Lieber, Oxford University Press, New York, 211–44.

Marshall, P. and Walsham, A., 2006, ‘Migrations of Angels in the Early Modern World’, in Angels in the Early Modern World, Edited by Peter Marshall and Alexandra Walsham, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

 

 Appendix

The following is an extract from Kav HaYashar, Chapter 25 (Kav HaYashar, trans. Metsudah Publications, 2007).

 

It is written, “Hashem will bless you and protect you” (Bamidbar 6:24). The Sages comment (Midrash Bamidbar Rabbah 11:5): “‘Hashem will bless you’ — with wealth; ‘and protect you’ — from harmful destructive spirits.” This Midrash requires explanation… 

[T]he Midrash can be understood in light of a story I once heard of a man who was blessed with fabulous wealth, possessing treasure houses filled with gold and silver and precious stones. That man also happened to be a tremendous miser, whose like was not to be found anywhere in the world. He refused to attend synagogue even on Monday and Thursday lest he be obliged to give a penny to charity! This man had only one mitzvah to his credit and it was that one mitzvah that stood by him and saved him on his day of judgment.. On account of this mitzvah he also merited becoming extremely generous later on. For this man was a mohel. Moreover, when there was an infant in need of circumcision he would travel to perform it even if the baby was many miles from his house. Nor would he take any remuneration, neither from the rich nor from the poor. 

One day a destructive spirit appeared to him in the form of a human being. It said to him, “My wife has given birth to a son and the circumcision is due to take place on such-and-such a day. I would like you to come and circumcise my son.” The mohel immediately went home to collect his circumcision knife and entered the carriage to go with the man to circumcise his son. He believed that this was indeed a human being and did not realize that it was a destructive spirit. The two of them traveled with the carriage until they came to a forest. Then the spirit led him through territory never before traversed by mortals.. It was an arid mountainous region. They traveled for two days straight and on the third day they came to the man’s house, which was situated in what appeared to be a small village comprised of about twenty houses. The houses were all very beautiful. 

When they entered the spirit’s house the mohel saw that his host was very wealthy, for the house was filled with delicacies, including meat and large fish. The host gave his horse to his servant to be fed in the usual manner and there was nothing to cause the mohel to suspect that his host might actually be a demon and a destructive spirit. While the host turned to his other affairs the mohel went to the room of the new mother. When the woman saw the mohel she was overjoyed and wished him well.. Then she said, “Come over to me, sir, and I will reveal to you a great secret.” She continued, “You must know that my husband is a demon and a destructive spirit while I am of human stock. When I was small I was kidnapped by demons.” “Now, as for me, I am already lost, for all their deeds are vanity and emptiness. But I warn you to save yourself. Be careful not to consume any food or drink while you are here and do not accept any gift from my husband or from anyone else.” Upon hearing these words the mohel’s heart was filled with trembling and he became very frightened. 

That evening numerous guests, male and female, arrived from the surrounding villages. They arrived by horse and carriage, all in the form of human beings although all were harmful and destructive spirits. The time came for the pre-circumcision feast and the host pleaded with the mohel to wash hands and join them for the mitzvah meal, but he refused to eat or drink anything, claiming that he was too exhausted. All that night (known in Yiddish as the vein nacht or the vach nacht) he neither ate nor drank. When morning came they went to the synagogue to pray and the mohel was obliged to pray with them and to sing out loud, “And He made with him a covenant,” as is the custom of the mohelim. When the service was completed the baby was brought in and the mohel performed the circumcision in accordance with Jewish custom.

Afterwards the sandek invited the congregation to a glass of schnapps and some cake, as is the custom. The mohel was also obliged to go over to the sandek, but he still refused to eat or drink, claiming that he was observing a fast day on account of a bad dream. When half the day had passed the host declared that since the mohel had gone to the trouble of traveling more than forty miles to perform the circumcision, the feast would be postponed until the evening, after the completion of his fast. The host’s only purpose in this was to compel the mohel to partake of his food and derive benefit from him so that he would take control of him. He was unaware that his wife had revealed to the man that he was a demon and a harmful spirit. 

When evening came the feast was held but still the mohel refused to eat, claiming that his head and limbs felt heavy. Meanwhile the guests enjoyed all the best delicacies in the world. When they were in good spirits because of the wine the host said to the mohel, “Come with me to another room.” The mohel was now very frightened and thought to himself that his final moment had come. But he followed his host to the other room where the host showed him all sorts of silver vessels. Then he took him to a different room and showed him vessels of gold. “Take something for a keepsake,” he urged. But the mohel answered, “I already have golden and silver vessels and all the good things in the world. I also possess precious ornaments, pearls, rings, bracelets and necklaces.” Nevertheless the host insisted, “Take a ring or whatever precious item meets your fancy.” But the mohel did not wish to take anything, so he replied that he had an abundance of precious stones and pearls. 

Afterwards he led him to room that was filled with keys hanging on nails along the walls. The mohel was astonished, for it appeared to him that one bundle of keys was exactly like the one he had at home with the keys to all his rooms and strongboxes. The host saw his expression and observed, “Sir, I have shown you much silver and gold and treasure houses filled with precious stones, yet you showed no surprise. And now over this storage room you show astonishment although it is filled with mere metal!” For the keys were all made of metal. The mohel responded, “I am perplexed by this particular bundle of keys. All these keys resemble those to my own houses and treasuries and storage rooms, yet here they are hanging upon nails!”

The host explained, “Since you have done me a kindness and come more than forty miles to circumcise my son, and since I have noted that Hashem has been with you preventing you from eating or drinking or taking anything from me, I will reveal to you the truth. I am the appointed head of the demons assigned over the miserly. “All their keys are given into our hands so that they will have neither the power nor the authority to perform any act of charity of lovingkindness with their property. They are unable even to indulge themselves by purchasing some dainty or delicacy. But because you performed this great act of loving- kindness I allow you to take this bundle of keys. Do not be afraid; I swear as Hashem lives that you will suffer no harm.” 

So the mohel took the bundle of keys and returned home joyfully. Thereafter he was transformed into an entirely different person. He immediately constructed a large and beautiful stone synagogue. He began distributing charity to support the poor and clothe the naked. And so did he continue conducting himself in an exemplary manner until the day of his death, leaving the world with a good name.

In light of this episode I believe that we can understand the meaning of the Midrash with which we began. The Midrash stated: “‘Hashem will bless you’ — with wealth.” This means that you will posses great wealth including storehouses of silver and gold. But you may ask, “Of what benefit to me are storehouses of silver and golden vessels if the keys are given over to demons and harmful spirits?” For this reason the Midrash continues: “‘And protect you’ — from destructive spirits.” That is, the keys will not be given over to them. Instead you will have dominion over the work of your hands so that with all the goodness with which you have been blessed you will be able to perform charity and lovingkindness. From all of the above it is clear that a person who is exceedingly miserly is in the hands of the Sitrah Acharah and under the dominion of the spirits that dwell upon his wealth. The generous, by contrast, are under the sway of the Sitrah DeKedushah, the Aspect of Holiness. Therefore a man should strive not to be overly miserly in order to connect himself with the realm of holiness so that he may also merit the World to Come. Amein.

 

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[1] The Early Modern Period is usually considered to be between the 16^th and 18^th centuries. The Modern Period is from the 19^th to 20^th centuries. The Post-Moden Period begins from the late 20^th century.